PPG Philippine Politics and Governance

When and Where do we start our History?

List of Philippine Presidents

OUTLINE:

Introduction: The concepts of politics and governance
1.1 The meaning of politics
1.2 How politics can be studied
1.3. The meaning of governance (source: https://tamayaosbc.wordpress.com/2014/08/21/what-is-governance/)

Political Ideologies
2.1 The basic tenets of the major political ideologies (i.e., liberalism, socialism, conservatism, etc.)

Power
3.1 Nature
3.2 Dimensions
3.3 Types
3.4 Consequences

States, Nations, and Globalization
4.1 The State as different from the Nation as a political concept
4.2 Globalization as a context of relations among nation-states

Historical Background of Philippine Democratic Politics
5.1 The evolution of Philippine politics, government, and governance

The Executive
6.1 The role of the Philippine President in relation to his/her powers

The Legislative
7.1 The role and responsibilities of the Philippine Senate and the House of Representatives

The Judiciary
8.1 The role and responsibilities of the Philippine Judiciary

Decentralization and Local Governance
9.1 Local Governance in the context of the 1991 Local Government Code (LGC) of the Philippines and National-Local Government dynamics

Elections and Political Parties
10.1 The nature of elections and political parties in the context of the Philippines
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Politics

1: the activities, actions, and policies that are used to gain and hold power in a government or to influence a government.

2: a person's opinions about the management of government.

“Politics is who gets what, when, how.” Harold Lasswell (American political scientist). When staking a position is the “how” that helps you get something

5 Reasons To Study Politics

Jess Houston, Chris Bowe, and Sam Steward, Lower Sixth

26 January 2015 in Senior School News

Sixth Form, Government, and Politics

1. Politics Helps You to Know Your Rights

The course has allowed us to see beyond our initial belief that we have no real say in the running of our country. It has truly educated us on a fundamental part of our society and has helped us to understand that if we engage in political processes, using the pressure points built into the system, then every individual really does have the opportunity to change the world.

2. Politics Clarifies What You Yourself Believe

Studying the things we have studied has given us the opportunity to discover our own political beliefs and to see in much greater detail the benefits and disadvantages of the vast array of political ideologies that are present in the world today. Being able to express what you believe accurately and concisely is extremely useful, and forces you to really look at yourself!

3. Politics is a Living, Breathing Subject

In Politics, textbooks go out of date the day they are published. Why? Because the political landscape changes every day, with new examples appearing constantly in the media. Picking which examples to use in your answers to essay questions is really exciting as something that has happened on the day you are taking you A-Level exams can appear in your response!

4. Politics Helps You to Understand Our Nation's Parties

After just one term of the subject, we have learned about democracy and our rights, ideologies and party policies, the Constitution and Parliament. With the knowledge gained from the classroom, we have been able to watch events unfold worldwide, have seen our leaders' reactions to these events and have come to understand these reactions as demonstrations of what we have learned.

5. Politics Prepares You for Adult Life

The world of British politics really opens up to teenagers after our eighteenth birthdays, with the vote giving us the ability to change our nation and allow the principles we hold dear to thrive. With this in mind, it could easily be said that Government and Politics is the most applicable subject on offer at any school, and is a subject that people should be encouraged to take due to nothing less than the way it prepares you for entering the adult world.

WHAT IS GOVERNANCE?

MEANING OF GOVERNANCE

Governance in General

1. The word “governance” came from the Latin verb “gubernare,” or more originally from the Greek word “kubernaein,” which means “to steer.” Basing on its etymology, governance refers to the manner of steering or governing, or of directing and controlling, a group of people or a state.
2. Governance is essentially related to politics, in that politics is often defined as the art of governance. Just as politics talks about governments, institutions, power, order, and the ideals of justice, governance also deals with the public sector, power structures, equity, and ideals of public administration. Nevertheless, they are distinct from each other in the sense that politics is broader than governance. Traditionally, the study of politics entails the concept of the “good life” and the “ideal society,” which are so broad they include a web of subjects and every possible form of government. The study of governance, on the contrary, is generally attuned to the concept of democracy, and on how the government and the civil society arrive at a decision in meeting their needs.

Definition of Governance

Governance is commonly defined as the exercise of power or authority by political leaders for the well-being of their country’s citizens or subjects. It is the complex process whereby some sectors of the society wield power and enact and promulgate public policies that directly affect human and institutional interactions and economic and social development. The power exercised by the participating sectors of the society is always for the common good, as it is essential for demanding respect and cooperation from the citizens and the state. As such, a great deal about governance is the proper and effective utilization of resources.

Governance and Government

1. Governance is traditionally associated with the government. In literature, they are often used interchangeably. But in the 1980s, political scientists broadened the meaning of governance as including, not just government actors, but also civil society actors.[1]Today, governance includes three sectors: the public sector (state actors and institutions), the private sector (households and companies), and the civil society (non-governmental organizations). These three sectors are said to work hand in hand in the process of governance. This new use of the term focuses on the role of “networks” in the achievement of the common good, whether these networks are intergovernmental, transnational, or international.[2] In other words, governance is broader than government in that other sectors are included in it.
2. Many authors also distinguish the two by associating the government with “control and domination,” and governance with “decentralization and relational management.” On the one hand, the government refers to a central institution that wields power over its subjects. It is the instrument patterned after the model of “command and control,” the government being in command over the affairs of the people. On the other hand, governance is closely associated with the concept of decentralization of power and the need for inter-sectoral management. Governance is based on the realization that the government cannot do everything for the people so that in order to survive the state should not only rely on government but also on the other sectors of the society.
3. Thus, under the current trend, there is a need to move from the “traditional hierarchical exercise of power by the government” to the new notion of a “dispersed and relational power in governance” – from the government to governance. To govern should now mean to facilitate or regulate, not to dominate or command.

Importance of Studying Governance

From the information learned in the discussion of governance, the people, most especially the citizens, will be aware of the need for good governance. Consequently, such awareness should move them to action. For their continued empowerment and sustainable development, they have to know how to fight for their rights by knowing what to expect from Philippine governance. Thus, what will follow is an exposition of the basic concepts of governance, the ideal type of governance, and the status of the Philippines vis-à-vis the indicators of good governance.

PROCESSES AND ACTORS IN GOVERNANCE

Decision-Making and Implementation

Governance entails two processes: decision-making and implementation of the decision. In broad terms, decision-making refers to the process by which a person or group of persons, guided by socio-political structures, arrive at a decision involving their individual and communal needs and wants.  Implementation is the process that logically follows the decision; it entails the actualization or materialization of the plan or decision. Governance is not just decision-making because decision without implementation is self-defeating. Neither is it just implementation because there is nothing to implement without a decision or plan. Thus, the two processes necessarily go hand-in-hand in and are constitutive of, governance.

Actors and Structures

1. Understanding the two processes requires an analysis of the “actors” involved and “structures” established for making and implementing a decision. An actor is a sector or group or institution that participates in the process of decision-making and implementation. A structure refers to an organization or mechanism that formally or informally guides the decision-making process and sets into motion the different actors and apparatuses in the implementation process.
2. Having such a broad scope, governance has different facets and may be applied in different contexts, such as corporate governance, international governance, and national and local governance.[3] In each context, governance has different actors and structures. Depending on the kind of decision made and the structure implementing it, governance may be good or bad governance.
3. The government is almost always the main actor in governance, whether it is in the corporate, international, national or local level. The government is called the “public sector.” While it is the biggest actor in governance, it is not the only actor. Modern complex societies, in order to meet the growing demands of development, are managed at different levels by various actors. Even communist governments work with other sectors, especially with international organizations and multi-national corporations, in meeting their communist ends. The main role of the public sector is to provide an enabling environment for the other actors of governance to participate and respond to the mandate of the common good.
4. All actors other than the government are called the “civil society.” The civil society includes non-governmental organizations, and other community-based and sectoral organizations, such as the association of farmers, charitable institutions, cooperatives, religious communities, political parties, and research institutes. These organizations are private in nature but have public functions or objectives. The Philippine Red Cross, for instance, is a non-governmental organization. It is a private charitable institution the serves the community, especially during disasters and emergencies by providing medical assistance and disaster support services.
5. The study of Philippine governance, however, includes the business or private sector as an indispensable partner in development. To cope with the ever-growing demands of development, the public sector must necessarily tie-up with the private sector most especially in the financial
6. At the national and international levels, decision-making is greatly influenced by actors like the media, international organizations, multi-national corporations, and international donors. Thus, from the foregoing, it should be clear that governance involves several actors in multi-level structures.

Informal Actors and Bad Governance   

1. Other informal actors also exist, such as organized crime syndicates and powerful families. Their influence is felt more clearly in local governments, and in rural and urban areas. Most often than not, these actors are the cause of corruption, in that legitimate government objectives are distorted by their illegal and private interests. Worse, they manipulate government officials and agencies and cause widespread yet organized violence in the community. In urban and rural areas, for example, the rich and powerful families control the economy by controlling the local government officials. They bring about a controlled environment so that decisions must always favor them. Allegedly, even government officials, both local and national, are not just influenced but themselves members of organized crime syndicates with the purpose of using public office and, consequently, public funds for personal aggrandizement.
2. When these actors and informal structures disrupt, corrupt and upset the legitimate objectives and ideals of the society, bad governance will result which is considered as the chief problem of the society. Problems deepen and multiply because of bad governance. Inasmuch as economics and politics are interrelated, the poor economy is caused by bad governance. International aids and loans, for instance, are scarce in a badly governed country. International donors and financial institutions are increasingly basing their aid and loans on the condition that reforms that ensure “good governance” are undertaken.[4]Recognizing these realities, the current economic and political goals of countries all over the world are aimed at “good governance.” It is an ideal so broad and elusive the realization of which is yet to be achieved. More so, the contemporary meaning of “development” is good governance or more specifically a reform from faulty governance to good governance. What good governance is will, therefore, be discussed next.

INDICATORS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE

            Eight Indicators of Good Governance

1. Good governance is understood through its eight indicators or characteristics: (1) Participatory; (2) Rule of Law; (3) Effective and Efficient; (4) Transparent; (5) Responsive; (6) Equitable and Inclusive; (7) Consensus Oriented; and (8) Accountability. They are inextricably related to each other. For instance, without active participation among the various actors in governance, there would be a concomitant lack of responsiveness. Likewise, if decision-making is not transparent, then inevitably there would be no participation, accountability, and decisions are not consensus-oriented. These indicators should, however, be understood in the context of good “democratic” governance. Some of the indicators cannot be applied in other forms of government. For example, good communist governance could never be consensus-oriented or genuinely participatory.
2. It must also be emphasized that good governance and development should not be based exclusively on economic growth. Through global persuasion, good governance and development signify a broader spectrum of things, such as protection of human rights, equitable distribution of wealth, enhancement of individual capabilities and creation of an enabling environment to foster participation and growth of human potentials. As it evolved today, sustainable development necessitates “people empowerment” and “respect for human rights.”[5] After all, economic prosperity or the minimization of poverty and unemployment depends on how the state unleashes the full potential of its human resource by recognizing their vital roles and according to full respect for human rights.

            Participation

1. Good governance essentially requires the participation of different sectors of society. Participation means the active involvement of all affected and interested parties in the decision-making process. It requires an enabling environment wherein pertinent information is effectively disseminated and people could respond in an unconstrained and truthful manner. It also means gender equality, recognizing the vital roles of both men and women in decision-making.
2. More fundamentally, the need for the participation is a recognition of the limits of a “verticalized system” of governance. A verticalized system, or the top-down approach, refers to a state or government monopoly both of powers and responsibilities. While the government is still the most potent actor in the process of governance, the participation of other sectors is already a necessity because of the always evolving complexity and ever-growing needs of the societies, especially in the financial sphere. What should now be utilized is the so-called “horizontal system” where the government works hand in hand with other sectors of the society. The different sectors are considered partners of the government in attaining development goals. Governance should no longer be government monopoly but government management or inter-sectoral participation.
3. Participation in representative democracies may either be direct or indirect, and recommendatory or actual. It could be indirect and recommendatory because in principle the form of government is based on delegation of powers. In the Philippines, which possesses features of both direct and indirect democracy, indirect participation is done through public consultations or hearings, while direct participation is through elections, initiatives, and referendums.
4. The management of highly complex societies and of their ever-growing needs requires a participatory form of governance by diffusing power. The move for decentralization is a response to this as it widens the base of participation and allows local government units to exercise governmental powers directly within their respective districts. Service delivery is enhanced because of the proximity of local government units to their constituents, and because of the linking which happens between the national government and regional concerns.
5. Participation is one of the strengths of Philippine governance. The 1987 Philippine Constitution is replete of provisions dealing with relational and inter-sectoral governance. The Local Government Act of 1989 was borne out of the need for decentralization in Philippine governance. As such, these and other related legislations may be considered as normative standards for good governance.

            Rule of Law

1. Democracy is essentially the rule of law. It is through the law that people express their will and exercise their sovereignty. That the government is of law and not of men is an underlying democratic principle which puts no one, however rich and powerful, above the law. Not even the government can arbitrarily act in contravention of the law. Thus, good democratic governance is fundamentally adherence to the rule of law.
2. Rule of law demands that the people and the civil society render habitual obedience to the law. It also demands that the government acts within the limits of the powers and functions prescribed by the law. The absence of the rule of law is anarchy. Anarchy happens when people act in utter disregard of law and when the government acts whimsically or arbitrarily beyond their powers. In more concrete terms, rule of law means “peace and order,” “absence of corruption,” “impartial and effective justice system,” “observance and protection of human rights,” and “clear, publicized, and stable laws.”
3. What the law seeks to promote is justice. When there is a dearth of legislation for curbing social evils, or even if there is, but the same is ineffectual or unresponsive, and when there is no faithful execution of the law, then justice is not attained. When the justice system is biased and discriminatory, when it favors the rich and the influential over the poor and lowly, or when the legal processes are long, arduous, unavailable or full of delays, then justice is not attained. Then when the actors of governance can minimize, if not eliminate, these injustices, then there is said to be rule of law.
4. Rule of law also requires that laws are responsive to the needs of society. Archaic or irrelevant laws must be amended or repealed to cater to modern demands.
5. The Philippines does not fare well in this aspect of good governance. In spite of being one of the oldest democracies in the region, the Philippines ranked as last among seven indexed Asian countries according to the World Justice Project Rule of Law Index. Generally, the reasons for ranking last are “lack of respect for the law,” “pervasive and systemic corruption in the government,” and “circumvention of the law.” Lack of respect for the law is generally caused by distrust in the integrity of law enforcement agencies. Order and security are compromised and criminal justice is rendered ineffectual.

Systemic corruption has long been a problem in the Philippines that like a malignant tumor it keeps on sucking the life out of the country. Allegedly, it is the key officials in the government who direct the perpetration of this crime. What became clear from a long string of corruption and plunder cases is the true motive of many aspiring politicians – money. The huge amount of money spent during election campaigns are but mere investments for a more profitable return during their term in office.  

In addition, the justice system is flooded by legal practitioners who are experts at circumventing the law. Circumvention happens when there is compliance with the letter of the law but a violation of its spirit and purpose. Due to technicalities, for instance, highly paid lawyers can find ways for their rich and powerful clients to evade the law. Although apparently there is the observance of law, it is only superficial as the real end of the law is forfeited. As such, there is a concomitant violation of fundamental rights of the people and ineffective administration of justice.

6. Nevertheless, the Philippines has exerted efforts in promoting the rule of law. The series of cases filed against high ranking officials, previous Presidents, members of the judiciary, and high profile persons for graft and corrupt practices prove one thing clearly: the honest drive of the current administration to clean the government from corrupt traditional politicians. In addition, legislations were made to hasten the legal process. The “Alternative Dispute Resolution Act of 2004” (R.A. 9285), for instance, seeks to unclog the court dockets by promoting a speedy, efficient, and less expensive resolution of disputes. The “Judicial Affidavit Rule” issued by the Supreme Court in 2013 also lessened to a great extent the time and expenses of litigation.

Effectiveness and Efficiency

1. Good governance requires that the institutions, processes, and actors could deliver and meet the necessities of the society in a way that available resources are utilized well. That the different actors meet the needs of the society means that there is effective governance. That the valuable resources are utilized, without wasting or underutilizing any of them, means that there is efficient governance. Effectiveness (meeting the needs) and efficiency (proper utilization of resources) must necessarily go together to ensure the best possible results for the community.
2. Concretely, effectiveness and efficiency demands “enhancement and standardization of the quality of public service delivery consistent with international standards,” “professionalization of bureaucracy,” “focusing of government efforts on its vital functions, and elimination of redundancies or overlaps in functions and operations,” “a citizen-centered government,” and “an improved financial management system of the government.”[6]
3. Public service delivery, especially of front-line agencies, must promptly and adequately cater to the needs of the citizens. Doing so requires simplified government procedures and inexpensive transaction costs. Cumbersome procedures and expensive costs trigger corruption and red tape. “Red Tape” refers to the disregard for timeframes in procedures by government agencies through procrastination in public service delivery or under-the-table or unofficial transactions.[7] To further curb such possibilities, the government agencies must comply with their citizen’s charter and use up-to-date information and communications technology to reduce processing time. There must also be coordination among various government agencies to eliminate redundant information requirements.
4. Professionalism in Philippine bureaucracy requires competence and integrity in civil service. Appointments to civil service must be depoliticized and must be based solely on merits. Effectiveness and efficiency also demand that the programs and objectives of the various government agencies are aligned with individual performance goals. The increases in compensation are likewise necessary for the economic well-being, sustained competence and boosted the morale of the civil servants.
5. Although still insufficient, efforts were made to attain effectiveness and efficiency in Philippine governance. The Anti-Red Tape Act of 2007 (ARTA), for instance, was passed to require the setting up of Citizen’s Charter for a simplified procedure and to facilitate governmental transactions. Also, many government departments and agencies pursued a rationalization program to check excessive and redundant staffing.

Transparency

1. Transparency, as an indicator of good governance, means that people are open to information regarding the decision-making process and the implementation of the same. In legal terms, it means that information on matters of public concern is made available to the citizens or those who will be directly affected. It also means that transactions involving public interests must be fully disclosed and made accessible to the people. It is anchored on the democratic right to information and the right to access the same. Transparency is necessary not just from government transactions but also in those transactions of the civil society and private sector imbued with public interests.
2. The reason why there should be transparency is to promote and protect democratic ideals. When there is transparency, people are placed in a better position to know and protect their rights as well as denounce corrupt or fraudulent practices in the public sector and in the private sector.
3. Although again insufficient, efforts were made in pursuit of transparency in Philippine governance. As far as the government sector is concerned, the current administration, consistent with its drive of curbing corruption, promotes honesty and integrity in public service. It is currently pursuing the passage of the Freedom of Information Bill and other related legislation, as well as intensifying people’s engagement in local governance. Transparency in budget and disbursements are, however, still far from being substantially implemented.

Responsiveness   

1. Responsiveness means that institutions and processes serve all stakeholders in a timely and appropriate manner. It also means that actors and structures of governance easily give genuine expression to the will or desire of the people. In other words, the interests of all citizens must be well protected in a prompt and appropriate manner so that each of them can appreciate and take part in the process of governance. While responsiveness is also a characteristic sought from the private sector and civil society, more is demanded from the government or the public sector.
2. Gender equality is engrained in the egalitarian principles of democracy. Gender concerns that respond to the women and their community must always be part of the agenda of the public sector and civil society. Thus, emerging as important areas in the study of democratic governance is “Gender and Development” and “Gender Responsiveness.” The participation of women in governance within the context of “gendered socialization” rests on how responsive the structures and processes are to their roles and needs.
3. Some of the important efforts made to attain responsive governance in the Philippines are decentralization, creation of citizen’s charter in all frontline agencies (as required by ARTA), and gender sensitivity programs. First, through decentralization, local governments, which are more proximate to their constituents, serve more promptly the people, who in turn become more involved in decision-making. Second, every government agency now has its Citizen’s Charter, which provides timeframes for every step in attaining frontline services. Agencies now must also respond to written queries sent by the stakeholders or interested parties within a period of ten days, otherwise, there will be delayed service. However, this aspect of governance still remains to be one of the causes of the decline of the public’s confidence in the public sector. Although the ARTA has been passed, there is still so much delay in public service delivery. The failure of the government agencies to explain the charters to the stakeholders is one of the main reasons why there is still delay.

            Equity and Inclusiveness

1. Equity and inclusiveness mean that all the members of the society, especially the most vulnerable ones or the grassroots level, must be taken into consideration in policy-making. Everyone has a stake in the society and no one should feel alienated from it. Particularly, those who belong to the grassroots level must not only be the subject of legislation but they must be given the opportunity to participate in decision or policymaking.
2. Social equity refers to a kind of justice that gives more opportunity to the less fortunate members of society. It is based on the principle that those who have less in life should have more in law. Good governance demands that the actors must give preferential attention to the plight of the poor. Laws must be geared towards this end and the society must actively participate in the promotion of the same.
3. The Philippine Government has done extensive efforts in promoting equity and inclusiveness. The Constitution makes it as one of its state policies the promotion of social justice. Pursuant to this, the Congress has enacted social legislations like the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law which aims at freeing the farmer tenants from the bondage of the soil. Also, representation in the Congress, under the party-list system, is constitutionally mandated to have a sectoral representation of the underprivileged. Gender and Development programs are in the process of being integrated with the various structures and institutions in the country. But legislation is one thing; implementation is another. It is in the faithful implementation of these laws that the country failed. Inequality is especially felt in the justice system, the electoral system, and even in the bureaucracy itself.

            Consensus Oriented

1. Governance is consensus-oriented when decisions are made after taking into consideration the different viewpoints of the actors of society. Mechanisms for conflict resolution must be in place because inevitably conflict that will arise from competing interests of the actors. To meet the consensus, a strong, impartial, and flexible mediation structure must be established. Without such, compromises and a broad consensus cannot be reached that serves that best interest of the whole community.
2. Fundamentally, democratic governance is based on the partnership of the actors of society in providing public services. Decisions-making must, therefore, entail recognition of their respective interests as well as their respective duties. The essentials of governance could never be expressed in a unilateral act of policymaking by the public sector or other dominant sectors. Public hearings or consultations in arriving at a consensus are therefore inherently necessary in the process of governance.
3. Among the things done by the Philippines in promoting a consensus-oriented governance are: (1) creation of a wide-based of representation in the Congress; (2) a two-tiered legislature or bicameralism which subjects legislation to the evaluation of national and district legislators; and (3) necessity of public hearings or consultations of various governmental policies and actions.

            Accountability

1. Accountability means answerability or responsibility for one’s actions. It is based on the principle that every person or group is responsible for their actions most especially when their acts affect the public interest. The actors have an obligation to explain and be answerable for the consequences of decisions and actions they have made on behalf of the community it serves.
2. Accountability comes in various forms: political, hierarchical, and managerial accountability. Political accountability refers to the accountability of public officials to the people they represent. Hierarchical accountability refers to the ordered accountability of the various agencies and their respective officers and personnel in relation to their program objectives. Managerial accountability refers to employee accountability based on organization and individual performance. A system of rewards and punishment must be in place to strengthen the processes and institutions of governance.
3. The Philippines in recent years had endeavored to comply with the requirements of accountability. It had put in action the concept of political accountability as it held answerable erring public officials involved in graft and corruption and for acts contrary to the mandate of the constitution. It had also strengthened parliamentary scrutiny through legislative investigations and the creation of special committees exercising oversight functions. The Office of the Ombudsman, considered as the public watchdog, has become ever so active in investigating and prosecuting graft and plunders cases. Citizen’s Charter, as required by ARTA, was also an important tool in promoting professional public service values. In this area, Philippine governance has done relatively well.

CURRENT STATE OF GOVERNANCE IN THE PHILIPPINES

1. The Philippines is plagued by bad governance. Based on the six dimensions of governance in the Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI), it ranks in the lower half of the percentile. In 2010-2011, the Philippines ranked only 85th in the Global Competitive Index (GCI), lagging behind most of its Southeast Asian neighbors. The decline of trust in the actors of governance and the consequential poor economic condition were brought about by the systemic corruption among and between public officials and private organizations. In 2013, it ranked 94th among 177 countries in the Corruption Perception Index. Among the key institutions in the Philippines perceived to be most corrupt based on the Global Corruption Index are “political parties,” “judiciary,” “police,” “public officials and civil servants,” and “legislature.” This means all branches of the Philippine government are now challenged.
2. As perceived and experienced by the common Filipino masses, the foremost indicators of bad governance in the Philippines are the unending cycle of poverty, the huge gap between the rich and the poor, the deep-seated tradition of corruption, mistrust on formal government institutions, yawning cynicism on the true motive of political actions, instability of the economic environment, constant threats to the authority of the established government, and questions on accountability and transparency. These are the usual content of everyday broadcast media, so common that there perceived to be the normal state of affairs in the Philippines.
3. Bad governance is the root cause of all evils. It is what prevents the Philippines from achieving its Millennium Development Goals. Rising above such a state of governance is a political imperative and the ideal solution to a wide range of politico-economic problems. While the Philippines has already created “islands of good governance”[8] in some national agencies and local government units, its overall state is still miserable.[9]

Guide Questions:

1. Who are the actors in the process of governance? How do they interact in coming up with, and in implementing decisions?
2. How are the indicators of good governance related to each other? Give a concrete example of your answer.
3. How does governance transform into bad governance? Give concrete examples.
4. What is the status of governance here in the Philippines? Support your answer.
5. Give your recommendations on how to improve Philippine governance.

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Political Ideology is a certain set of ethical ideals, principles, doctrines, myths or symbols of a social movement, institution, class or large group that explains how society should work and offers some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order.

Ideologies are the sets of basic beliefs about the political, economic, social and cultural affairs held by the majority of people within as society.

Absolutism. A system where the rulers have unlimited control.

Anarchism. A society without government, laws, police or other authority. System of self-control.

Aristocracy. The privilege of a social class whose members possess a disproportionately large percentage of society's wealth, prestige and political influence.

Autocracy. Supreme political power is in the hands of one person whose decision is unregulated.

Capitalism.  A right-wing political system where the principal means of production and distribution are in private hands.

Communism.  An extreme left-wing ideology based on the revolutionary socialist teachings of Marx. Collective ownership and a planned economy. Each should work to their capability and receive according to their needs.

Conservatism. A governmental system where the existing institution is maintained, emphasizing free-enterprise and minimal governmental intervention.

Democracy. Government by the people usually through elected representatives.

Dictatorship. Government by a single person with absolute control over the resources of the state.

Egalitarianism. A belief where all citizens have equal rights and privileges.

Fascism.  An extreme right-wing ideology where the existing social order is protected by the forcible suppression of the working class.

Imperialism. The extension of power and rule beyond established geographical boundaries.

Liberalism. Representative government, free-speech, abolition of class privilege and state protection of the individual.

Marxism. Developed by Marx and Engles, it proposes that all is subject to change and resistance to change necessitates the overthrow of the system through class struggle.

Maoism. Interpretation of Marxist communism emphasizing the development of agriculture.

Monarchy. A form of rule in which the head of state is a King or Queen.

Nationalism. The unification of the state and release from foreign rule.

Oligarchy. A system of government in which virtually all power is held a small number of wealthy people who shape policy to benefit themselves.

Populism. The collective noun for the ideologies which demand the redistribution of political power and economic leadership to the 'common people'.

Socialism.  A left-wing political system where the principal means of production, distribution, and exchange are in common ownership.

Theocracy. Rule by the church.

Totalitarianism. Government control of all activities.

Trotskyism. Form of Marxism incorporating the concept of permanent revolution.

THE LEFT

Liberty.  The freedom of speech and the right to dissent.

Equality.  A classless society with the redistribution of wealth through a welfare state.

Fraternity.  The communal brotherhood, working and living as one.

THE RIGHT

Authority.  The preservation of order through an evolved authority.

Hierarchy.  The continuation of the existing social order.

Property.  The right to private ownership.

POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE WITH PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION AND PHILIPPINE HISTORY NOTES

Nation is a group of people bound together by certain characteristics such as common social origin, language, customs, and traditions, and who believe that they are one and distinct from others.

State community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render obedience, and enjoying freedom from external control.

NATION	STATE
Ethnic concept	Political Concept
May or may not be controlled by external control (foreign countries)	Cannot be controlled by other countries
One race or origin	Consists of different races

Elements of State: People, Territory, Government, Sovereignty

1. People - the population living in a state.

Citizenship, the relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection. Citizenship implies the status of freedom with accompanying responsibilities. Citizens have certain rights, duties, and responsibilities that are denied or only partially extended to aliens and other noncitizens residing in a country. In general, full political rights, including the right to vote and to hold public office, are predicated upon citizenship. The usual responsibilities of citizenship are allegiance, taxation, and military service. (https://www.britannica.com/topic/citizenship)

1. Who is classified as Philippine citizens?

Under the 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article IV, Section 1, it states that:

Section 1The following are citizens of the Philippines:

1. Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the adoption of this Constitution;
2. Those whose fathers or mothers are citizens of the Philippines;
3. Those born before January 17, 1973, of Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine citizenship upon reaching the age of majority; and
4. Those who are naturalized in accordance with law

2. What are the modes of acquiring Philippine citizenship?

There are two (2) generally recognized forms of acquiring Philippine citizenship:

1. Filipino by birth
   1. Jus soli (right of soil) which is the legal principle that a person’s nationality at birth is determined by the place of birth (e.g. the territory of a given state)
   2. Jus sanguinis (right of blood) which is the legal principle that, at birth, an individual acquires the nationality of his/her natural parent/s. The Philippine adheres to this principle.
2. Filipino by naturalization which is the judicial act of adopting a foreigner and clothing him with the privileges of a native-born citizen. It implies the renunciation of a former nationality and the fact of entrance into a similar relation towards a new body politic (2Am.Jur.561,par.188).

3. I am a natural-born Filipino who was naturalized in another country; can I re-acquire my Filipino citizenship without losing current my citizenship?

Former natural-born Filipino who has been naturalized in another country who wishes to retain or re-acquire their Philippine citizenship may apply for Retention/Re-acquisition of Philippine Citizenship pursuant to RA 9225.

4. Can I include my dependents for my application of RA 9225?

Children below 18 years of age may be included as dependents to your application for RA 9225. For more information

5. I am a foreign national with a Filipino parent; can I apply for a Filipino citizenship?

Foreign nationals who were born outside of the Philippines to a Filipino parent (Note: the parent/s must be Philippine citizen/s at the time of the applicant’s birth) may apply for Recognition as a Filipino citizen, without losing the current citizenship of the applicant. (http://immigration.gov.ph/faqs/citizenship)

Factors of Citizenship

• Citizenship by birth (jus sanguinis). If one or both of a person's parents are citizens of a given state, then the person may have the right to be a citizen of that state as well.
• Born within a country (jus soli). Some people are automatically citizens of the state in which they are born. This form of citizenship originated in England, where those who were born within the realm were subjects of the monarch (a concept pre-dating citizenship) and is common in common law countries.
• Citizenship by marriage (jus matrimonii). where a citizen marries a non-citizen, typically for payment, work, immigration.
• Naturalization. States normally grant citizenship to people who have entered the country legally and been granted a permit to stay, or been granted political asylum, and also lived there for a specified period. In some countries, naturalization is subject to conditions which may include passing a test demonstrating reasonable knowledge of the language or way of life of the host country, good conduct (no serious criminal record) and moral character (such as drunkenness, or gambling), vowing allegiance to their new state or its ruler and renouncing their prior citizenship. 

What is the difference between naturalization and citizenship?

There is a big difference between the two terms i.e Naturalisation and citizenship:

1. Naturalization is granted to people who are citizens of another country.

2. Naturalization has a lot more requirements to apply.

3. Naturalization requires a person to be a permanent résidant of the country for at least 5 years.

4. Naturalization is the process wherein a person who is born from another country acquires citizenship and nationality of another.

5. Obey the country’s law with the promise.

6. Naturalization is the process for which approval is in the hand of the country depending upon your past activities.

whereas Citizenship,

1. citizenship is granted to people who are born to parents who are already citizens of a particular country.
2. Lesser requirements to apply.
3. Lesser time to get approval.
4. Automatically a part to actively participate in the political-social activities of their country.
5. Automatically given (https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-naturalisation-and-citizenship)

2. Territory - includes the geographical area (land, the rivers, the sea, and the air space) under the jurisdiction of the state extends.

                 MODES BY WHICH A STATE CAN ACQUIRE TERRITORY

• Discovery
• Occupation
• Prescription 
• Cession 
• Annexation 
• Conquest 
• Accretion 
• Avulsion

Discovery is the oldest method of acquiring title to territory. However, discovery alone would not suffice to establish a legal title. It is necessary that the discovered area must be physically occupied. Related to the title by discovery is the hinterland doctrine or the principle of continuity. If a state has made a settlement, it has a right to assume sovereignty over all adjacent vacant territory, which is necessary to the integrity and security of the settlement.

Occupation is the intentional acquisition by a state over a territory which at the time of claim not under the sovereignty of any state. There are two requirements: (1) the territory subject of claim must not be under the sovereignty of any state (terra nullius); and (2) the state must have effectively occupied the territory, that is, the state claiming the territory must have exercised immediate occupation (corpus occupandi) on the territory after it displayed its intention to occupy (animus occupandi).

There are two elements of effective occupation. 

• One is the intention and will to act as sovereign (animus)
• two is the peaceful and continuous display of state authority (factum). 

The intention can be displayed from the simple fact of publishing notices of sovereignty in various state journals or issuing laws on territorial assertions. The display of state authority must be peaceful and continuous. Mere protests from rival claimant states do not lose the peaceful character of the display of state authority. However, consistent protests over a long period of time if not rebutted by the claimant state may disturb the peaceful character of the display of state authority. 

The continuous display of state authority encompasses two ideas: 

• (1) that the display of authority is ongoing; and 
• (2) the display of state authority must exist up to the "critical date". 

The critical date in a territorial dispute is the date on which the location of territorial sovereignty is decisive. Normally it is the date of the origin of the dispute. The state which can present an effective title in the period immediately preceding the critical date has the superior claim. 

Prescription means continued occupation over a long period of time by one state of territory actually and originally belonging to another state. 

There are four requirements of prescription: 

• (1) the possession must be exercised in the form of the actual exercise of sovereign authority; 
• (2) the possession must be peaceful and uninterrupted; 
• (3) the possession must be public; and 
• (4) the possession must be for a long period of time. 

 The peaceful and continuous display is also an essential element although as compared to the occupation, prescription requires a stricter proof and longer period of the display of authority. Moreover, any protest or objection by the losing state destroys the peaceful display of authority of the claiming state. 

Cession is the transfer of territory usually by treaty from one state to another. Concomitant of transfer of territory is the transfer of sovereignty from the owner state to another state. And since cession is a bilateral transaction, the parties involved are states. Cession may also be in the form of exchange of territory or in the form of gift or donation or devise. 

Conquest is acquiring territory by the use of force. The practice before was after the conquest, the conqueror annexed the conquered territory to his state. Thus, conquest first takes place followed by annexation. But with the establishment of the United Nations, conquest is no longer acceptable in the international community. 

A state may also increase or decrease its territory through accretion and avulsion. 

Accretion is the attainment of sovereignty over new land due to the slow movement of natural forces. An example of this is the gradual movement of a river bed. On the other hand, if the natural forces happened suddenly, like the creation of an island in territorial waters due to a volcanic eruption, it is referred to as avulsion.

3. Government - the agency through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and carried out.

        KINDS OF GOVERNMENT

• A de jure government (government of law) is an organized government of a state which has the general support of the people.
• A de facto government (government of fact) is a government that actually exercises power or control but without legal title.

There are three kinds of de facto government:

• the government that gets possession and control of, or usurps by force or by the voice of the majority, the rightful legal government and maintains itself against the will of the latter;
• that established as an independent government by the inhabitants of a country who rise in insurrection against the parent state; and
• that which is established and maintained by military forces who invade and occupy a territory of the enemy in the course of the war, and which is denominated as a government of paramount force.

4. Sovereignty or independence - It is the supreme, absolute and uncontrollable power by which an independent state is governed. The power to command and enforce obedience free from foreign control.

There are four kinds of sovereignty:

• Legal sovereignty - is the authority that has the power to issue final commands. This is the supreme law-making power.
• Political sovereignty - is the power behind the legal sovereign or the sum of the influences that operate upon it. This is legally unknown, unorganized and incapable of expressing the will of the state in the form of a legal command. But it is this will that must ultimately prevail in the State. In a narrower sense, the electorate constitutes the political sovereign, and in a broader sense, the whole mass of the population.

• Internal sovereignty - refers to the power of the State to control its domestic affairs. It empowers the State to make and alter its system of government and to regulate its private affairs, as well as the rights and relations of its citizens, without any dictation, interference, or control on the part of any person or body or State outside the particular political community.
• External sovereignty - is the power of the State to direct its relations with other States. With this, the State is not subject to the control, dictation, or government of any other power. It implies the right and power to receive recognition as an independent power from other powers and to make treaties with them on equal terms, make war or peace with them, send diplomatic agents to them, acquire territory by conquest or occupation, and otherwise to manifest the freedom and autonomy. (Suarez, 2005) This is also known as independence.

Origin of States:

1. Divine right theory – the state is of divine creation and the ruler is ordained by God to govern the people. Ex. Moses giving the commandments

2. Necessity or force theory – states must have been created through force, by some great warriors who imposed their will upon the weak. Ex. Warriors conquer lands

3. Paternalistic theory - attributes the origin of states to the enlargement of the family, which remained under the authority of the father or mother. By natural stages, the family grew into a clan, and then developed into a tribe, which broadened into a nation, and the nation became a state.

4.  Social contract theory – states must have been formed by a deliberate and voluntary compact among the people to form a society and organize a government for their common good. This theory justifies the right of the people to revolt against a bad ruler.

Rights of the State 

1. Right of Existence and Self Defense - It is the right of the state to use force against an aggressor-state when and to the extent it appears to it and it reasonably believes that such conduct is necessary to define itself from such an aggressor's imminent or actual use of unlawful force.
2. Right of Independence - to be free from dependence, dictation, subjection, control, and intervention of another state.
3. Right of Equality - This right is inherent to a state.
4. Right of Legation - to enter into a diplomatic relation or intercourse with other states by receiving and sending diplomatic corps or representatives.

Different Forms of Government

1. As to the number of persons exercising sovereign powers

 Monarchy – power belongs to one person in which the supreme and final authority is in the hands of as a single person, e.g. King, queen, empress, without regard to the source of his election or nature or declaration of his tenure.

Classifications:

• Absolute Monarchy – which the ruler rules by divine right given by God e.g. Thailand, Saudi Arabia
• Limited Monarchy – which the ruler rules in accordance with a constitution e.g. England – Britain

 Aristocracy – power is in the hands of a few people, a few privileged class also known as oligarchy exercise political power.

Democracy – which the political power is exercised by the majority of the people, or by the people itself.

• Direct or pure democracy - the power is directly exercised by the people through assembly or mass meeting.
• Indirect, representative or republican - the power is exercised by a group of persons chosen by the people to act as their representatives

2. As to extent of powers exercised by a central or national government

• Unitary Government– in which the control of national and local affairs is exercised by the central/national government. Ex. Philippine Constitution.

• Federal Government – which the powers of government are divided between two sets of organs: one for national affairs and local affairs (governors) Ex. United States

3. As to the relationship between the executive and the legislative branches of the government:

• Parliamentary government - the executive is dependent on the legislative
• Presidential government - the executive is constitutionally vested with powers making it independent from the legislative department

4. Other forms:

• Civil government - the affairs of the state are administered and directed by the citizens or their representatives
• Military government - established and administered by a belligerent in the territory of an enemy-occupied by him
• Constitutional government - the powers of those who rule are defined and limited by the constitution
• Despotic government - the powers of those who rule are vague and may seem limitless because it is not defined nor limited by the constitution
• Elective government - the state confers powers upon a person or organization chosen by qualified voters and the holding of powers is for a limited term and under certain conditions
• Hereditary government - the state confers the powers of government upon a person or organization standing in certain family relations to his or her immediate predecessors
• Coordinate government - the powers of the government are distributed among separate departments equally independent of but coordinate with each other
• Consolidated government - the state confides all governmental powers to a single body
• De jure government - established according to the constitution of the state and has the general support of the people
• De facto government - established against the existing constitution of the state and is maintained against the rightful and lawful government
• Revolutionary government - installed, whether by force or otherwise, not in accordance with the procedure prescribed in an existing constitution

The Philippines is a representative, unitary, presidential civil, constitutional, elective, coordinate, and de jure government. In a way, it also exercises direct or pure democracy because of the constitutional provision on initiative and referendum.


The Government of the Philippines in Transition

Pre-Spanish Gov’t

• Unit of government (barangay)
• Ruled by Datu/Rajah/Sultan/King
• Composed of 30-100 families
• Timawa, Maharlika, Alipin: namamahay at sangigilid

       3 social classes

• 1. Maharlika (nobles) – slave-owning families
• 2. Timawa (freemen) – the majority of the population freeborn persons
• 3. Alipin (slaves) – a. namamahay- have own house, own properties could marry without master’s consent b. sagigilid - lives in their master’s house, have no properties at all.

Barangay to towns/ pueblos (gobernadorcillo / little governor): to provinces (leader: governor-governor-general) and/or cities (ayuntamiento, city council)

Spanish Government

• -Ferdinand Magellan discovers the Philippines
• - After 45 years, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi: colonized the Philippines
• - Governor-general: Chief
• -Royal Audiencia: Supreme Court; checks the governor-general

Revolutionary Era

•       Katipunan Government (KKK): Andres Bonifacio- a secret society
•       Ranks/membership: 

             1. Katipon- associates;black; Anak ng Bayan
             2. Kawal - soldier; green; Gomburza 3. Bayani- patriot; red; Rizal

•        Supreme Council ( Central Government): kataastaasang Sangunian
•        Provincial Council (Provinces): Sanguniang Balangay
•        Popular Coouncil (Towns): Sangguniang Bayan
•        Judicial Council: Sangguniang Hukuman

Biak na Bato Government

•         President: Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo
•         Magdalo: Aguinaldo; Magdiwang: Bonifacio
•       Constitution took effect for 2 years only, December 15, 1897

Malolos Constitution

•          San Miguel Bulacan
•       The first Philippine Republic, Sept. 15, 1898
•        Spanish-American War  

Commonwealth Republic (under the United States)

•       First military General: Wesley Merritt
•       Civil Government- William Howard Taft
•       Philippine Independence 10 years: 
•       President Manuel L. Quezon but was cut because of the Japanese Period.

Japanese Occupation

                    Puppet Government
                    Jorge Vargas: chairman

The Second Republic of the Philippines
              Jose P. Laure After Japanese Occupation:

THIRD REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES               
                 Manuel Roxas, July 4, 1946
                 1935 Constitution            

 Fourth REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
                 Ferdinand E. Marcos
                 1973 Constitution
The fifth Republic of the Philippines
1987 Constitution.


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