USCP 5.2 (2 to 4 Political and leadership structure/ Economic Institutions/Nonstate institutions)

2. Political and leadership structure
a. Political organization
i. Bands
ii. Tribes
iii. Chiefdoms
iv. States and nations
b. Authority and legitimacy 
i. Traditional
ii. Charismatic
iii. Rational
reference: https://opinion.inquirer.net/85293/max-webers-3-types-of-authority

3. Economic Institutions
a. Reciprocity
b. Transfers
c. Redistribution
d. Market transactions
e. Markets and state

4. Nonstate institutions
a. Banks and corporations
b. Cooperatives and trade unions
c. Transnational advocacy groups
d. Development agencies
e. International organizations
https://www.slideshare.net/dan_maribao/dannymaribaolesson-9economicinstitutions

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Political organization involves issues like allocation of political roles, levels of political integration, concentrations of power and authority, mechanisms of social control and resolving conflicts.

Types of Political Organizations

Band It is usually a very small, oftentimes nomadic (wandering) group that is connected by family ties and is politically independent.

Tribe It is a combination of smaller kin or non-kin groups, linked by a common culture, that usually acts like one.

Chiefdom A political unit headed by a chief, who holds power over more than one community group.

State community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render obedience, and enjoying freedom from external control.

Nation is a group of people bound together by certain characteristics such as common social origin, language, customs, and traditions, and who believe that they are one and distinct from others.

What is the difference between State and Nation?

NATION	STATE
Ethnic concept	Political Concept
May or may not be controlled by external control (foreign countries)	Cannot be controlled by other countries
One race or origin	Consists of different races

Authority refers to accepted power—that is, the power that people agree to follow. People listen to authority figures because they feel that these individuals are worthy of respect. Generally speaking, people perceive the objectives and demands of an authority figure as reasonable and beneficial, or true.

The sociologist and philosopher Max Weber distinguishes three types of authority—charismatic, traditional and legal-rational—each of which corresponds to a brand of leadership that is operative in contemporary society

Charismatic authority points to an individual who possesses certain traits that make a leader extraordinary. This type of leader is not only capable of but actually possesses the superior power of charisma to rally diverse and conflict-prone people behind him. His power comes from the massive trust and almost unbreakable faith people put in him.

Traditional authority indicates the presence of a dominant personality. This leader is someone who depends on established tradition or order. While this leader is also a dominant personality, the prevailing order in society gives him the mandate to rule. This type of leadership, however, is reflective of everyday routine and conduct.

Legal-rational authority is one that is grounded in clearly defined laws. The obedience of people is not based on the capacity of any leader but on the legitimacy and competence that procedures and laws bestow upon persons in authority. Contemporary society depends on this type of rationalization, as the complexities of its problems require the emergence of a bureaucracy that embodies order and systematization.

All three forms exhibit a specific weakness or problem.

First, charismatic leadership can be problematic because it is somehow based on some form of a messianic promise of overhauling an unjust system. It is not impossible, however, to find such type of a leader, as history would show. Consider Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., or Nelson Mandela. A charismatic leader holds the mission to unite his people amid adversity and differences in order to attain an almost insurmountable goal.

Second, traditional authority poses its particular difficulty insofar as it is based on some kind of dominant power. For Weber, all authority exhibits some form of domination. A traditional leader may rely on or even exploit prevailing practices. Traditional authority may suffer from a lack of moral regularity in the creation of legal standards.

Third, legal-rational authority makes manifest the power of the bureaucracy over the individual. In the exercise of authority, the administration of power, laws, and rules, including institutional duties and protocols, have control over individuals. While order and systematization are desirable, the bureaucracy may not be able to fully address the problems and concerns of everyone, as what the development of nation-states today suggests.

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Economic Institutions • A company or an organization that deals with money or with managing the distribution of money, goods, and services in an economy.

• Examples are banks, government organizations, and investment funds

Reciprocity • In social psychology, reciprocity is a social rule that says people should repay, in kind, what another person has provided for them; that is, people give back (reciprocate) the kind of treatment they have received from another. 

• By virtue of the rule of reciprocity, people are obligated to repay favors, gifts, invitations, etc. in the future.

Transfer 

1. Banking: Moving funds among two or more accounts held by the same or different entities. 

2. Real estate: Conveyance of title to a property from the seller to the buyer through a deed of transfer, following payment of the price.

3. Securities trading: Delivery of a stock (share) certificate by the seller's broker to the buyer's broker followed by conveyance of the title by recording the change in the stock (share) register.

Redistribution • In Economics the theory, policy, or practice of lessening or reducing inequalities in income for example through such measures like progressive taxation and anti-poverty programs.

Market Transactions • The exchange of goods and services through a market. The set of market transactions taking place in the economy is most important in terms of measuring gross domestic product (GDP).

Market transactions provide the basic data used at the Bureau of Economic Analysis to begin the estimation of GDP.

However, these data don't just want to measure market transactions, their goal is to measure economic production. • As such, they eliminate some market transactions that do not involve economic production, then add economic production that does not involve market transactions.

State-market relations • call for a holistic view of the relationship between the material and relational dynamics of society, on the one hand, and between these dynamics and institutional dynamics on the other.

the state contains mechanisms that are essential to the existence of markets themselves, and these mechanisms are not “natural” given. 

Economies are actually institutional production systems wherein the material density of the state both as organization and administration are of relevance.

Non-state Institutions • These are institutions that are not controlled by the government or by the State. • Examples are banks, corporations, private institutions

Trade Unions • It refers to a voluntary association of either employees or employer or independent workers to protect their interest and becomes an instrument of defense against exploitation and maltreatment.

Cooperatives • Firm owned, controlled, and operated by a group of users for their own benefit. • Each member contributes equity capital, and shares in the control of the firm on the basis of one-member, one-vote principle (and not in proportion to his or her equity contribution).

Transnational Advocacy Groups • They are free flowing and open relationships among knowledgeable and committed actors (individuals and organizations). international organizations such as the UN, and actors from the corporate/business world.

These networks are united by a commitment to some practical, usually "trans-sovereign" issue (an issue that transcends across multiple countries) • ex: women's representation, environmental sustainability, human rights, etc.

Development Agencies • These are local or international groups committed to pursuing specific developmental agendas of the state

Examples of Development agencies • African Development Bank (AfDB) • Development Bank of Latin America (CAF) • Asian Development Bank (ADB) • Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) • European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD • Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) • International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD; part of the World Bank Group)

International Organizations • These are groups that promote voluntary cooperation among its members.

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USCP 8 New challenges to human adaptation and social change

New challenges to human adaptation and social
change
1. Global warming and climate change
2. Transnational migration and Overseas
Filipino Workers (OFWs)

Responding to social, political, and cultural
change
1. Inclusive Citizenship and participatory
governance
2. New forms of media and social networking
3. Social movements (e.g.,
environmentalism, feminism)

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USCP 7 Cultural, Social, and Political Change Sources of social, cultural, and political change

Cultural, Social, and Political Change
Sources of social, cultural, and political
change
1. Innovation
2. Diffusion
3. Acculturation and assimilation
4. Social contradictions and tensions (e.g.,
Inter-ethnic conflicts, class struggle,
armed conflict, terrorism, protests,
gender issues)

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USCP 6 Social and political stratification

Social and political stratification
a. Social desirables (wealth, power, prestige)
b. Social mobility system
i. Open (Class)
ii. Closed (Caste)
c. Social inequality
i. Access to social, political, and
symbolic capital
ii. Gender inequality
iii. Ethnic minorities
iv. Other minorities (e.g., persons
with disabilities)
v. Global Inequality (relationships
between states and nonstate
actors in the global community)

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UCSP 5.1 - Cultural, social and political institutions

Cultural, social and political institutions

1. Kinship, marriage, and the household
a. Kinship by blood Descent and marriage (unilineal, matrilineal, patrilineal, bilateral)
b. Kinship by marriage Marriage rules cross-culturally (monogamy vs. polygamy, post-marital residency rules, referred marriage partners)
c. Kinship by ritual (Compadrazgo)
d. Family and the household Nuclear, extended, and reconstituted families (separated, transnational)
e. Politics of kinship (political dynasty, alliances)

REFERENCE: https://www.slideshare.net/abyko/kinship-marriage-and-the-household

2. Political and leadership structures
a. Political organization
i. Bands
ii. Tribes
iii. Chiefdoms
iv. States and nations
b. Authority and legitimacy
i. Traditional
ii. Charismatic
iii. Rational

3. Economic Institutions
a. Reciprocity
b. Transfers
c. Redistribution
d. Market transactions
e. Markets and state

4. Nonstate institutions
a. Banks and corporations
b. Cooperatives and trade unions
c. Transnational advocacy groups
d. Development agencies
e. International organizations
5. Education
a. Functions of education in society (formal and nonformal)
i. Productive citizenry
ii. Self-actualization
iii. Primary education as a human right

6. Religion and belief systems
a. Animism
b. Polytheism
c. Monotheism
d. Institutionalized religions
e. Separation of church and state

7. Health
a. Culture-specific syndromes and illnesses (e.g., “bughat”, ”usog”/”buyag”)
b. Systems of diagnosis, prevention, and healing (e.g., traditional, western, alternative healing systems)
c. Health as a human right
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KINSHIP 

• The bond of blood or marriage binds people together in a group. 
• According to the Dictionary of Anthropology, kinship system includes socially recognized relationships based on supposed as well as actual genealogical ties. 
• These relationships are the result of social interaction and recognized by society.

TYPES OF KINSHIP

• Affinal Kinship Relationships based upon marriage or cohabitation between collaterals (people treated as the same generation) 

• Consanguineous Kinship Connections between people that are traced by blood.

KINSHIP BY BLOOD

• Descent Systems Kinship is reckoned in a number of different ways around the world, resulting in a variety of types of descent patterns and kin groups. Anthropologists frequently use diagrams to illustrate kinship relationships to make them more understandable.

• Unilineal Descent  This traces descent only through a single line of ancestors, male or female. Both males and females are members of a unilineal family, but descent links are only recognized through relatives of one gender. 
  The two basic forms of unilineal descent are referred to as patrilineal and matrilineal.

• Patrilineal Descent Both males and females belong to their father's kin group but not their mother's. However, only males pass on their family identity to their children. A woman's children are members of her husband's patrilineal line. The red people in the diagram below are related to each other patrilineally.

• Matrilineal Descent  The form of unilineal descent that follows a female line. When using this pattern, individuals are relatives if they can trace descent through females to the same female ancestor. While both male and female children are members of their mother's matrilineal descent group, only daughters can pass on the family line to their offspring. The green people below are related to each other matrilineally.

• Bilineal Descent  When both patrilineal and matrilineal descent principles are combined

Kinship by Marriage

Marriage is an institution that admits men and women to family life. 

Edward Westermarck defined marriage as the more or less durable connection between male and female lasting beyond the mere act of propagation till after the birth of offspring. 

Lowie defined it as a relatively permanent bond between permissible mates. 

Malinowski defined marriage as a contract for the production and maintenance of children. 

According to Lundberg Marriage consists of the rules and regulations that define the rights, duties, and privileges of husband and wife with respect to each other.

MONOGAMY  is the practice of having only one spouse at one time. In some cases, monogamy means having only one spouse for an entire life span. Out of the different types of marriages, monogamy is the only one that is legal in the United States and in most industrial nations. 

• Social monogamy: Two persons/creatures that live together, have sex with one another, and cooperate in acquiring basic resources such as food, clothes, and money. 

• Sexual monogamy: Two persons/creatures that remain sexually exclusive with one another and have no outside sex partners. 

• Genetic monogamy: Two partners that only have offspring with one another. 

• Marital monogamy: Marriages of only two people. 

• Serial monogamy: A series of relationships. One person has only one partner at a time and then moves on to another partner after severing the relationship with the first.

Polygamy is a Greek word meaning "The practice of multiple Marriage". 

It is a marriage pattern in which an individual is married to more than one person at a time. Ex: Tiwi (North Australia) 

Two different types of Polygamy: 

•  Polygyny is the practice of one man having more than one wife or sexual partner at a time. Ex: Mormonism 

• Polyandry involves one woman having multiple husbands, within Polyandry, there are many variations on the marriage style. fraternal polyandry (Ex: Tibet and Nepal) secondary marriage (Ex: Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon)

Four major residence patterns: 

Neolocal Residence is most common with North American couples. This is where the couple finds their own house, independent of all family members. 

Patrilocal Residence is most commonly used with herding and farming societies. It’s where the married couple lives with the husband’s father’s family. By living with the husband’s family, it lets all the men, (the father, brothers, and sons) continue to work together on the land. 

Matrilocal Residence is most familiar among horticultural groups. It’s where the couple moves to live where the wife grew up; usually found with matrilineal kinship systems. 

Avunculocal Residence is also related in matrilineal societies however in this case the couple moves to live with the husband’s mother’s brother. They live with the most significant man, his uncle because it’s who they will later inherit everything from.

 Ritual Kinship Compadrazgo 

Ritual kinship in the form of godparenthood 

 Parents selected godparents for a child at his or her baptism, confirmation, and marriage. 

The godparents were then tied to the parents as co-parents. 

Ideally, co-parents should be a married couple; they were preferred because their unions were typically more stable and they were more likely to be able to provide a home for the child should the need arise. 

In most communities, however, there were not enough couples to serve as godparents for all children, so single women of good reputation were frequently chosen. 

It was important that the person asked should be of proper character and good standing in the community.

Family and The Household

• Nuclear Family A family consisting of a married man & woman and their biological children. The main issue for children is to help them under- stand that their two-parent, heterosexual family is a fine family, and is one kind among many other kinds of families

• Extended Family  A family where Grandparents or Aunts and Uncles play major roles in the children’s upbringing. This may or may not include those relatives living with the children. These family members may be in addition to the child’s parents or instead of the child’s parents.

• Conditionally Separated Families A family member is separated from the rest of the family. This may be due to employment far away; military service; incarceration; hospitalization. They remain significant members of the family.

• Transnational family These families live in more than one country. They may spend part of each year in their country of origin returning to the U.S. on a regular basis. The child may spend time being cared for by different family members in each country

Politics of Kinship

Kinship politics is commonly found in tribal societies across the world where kin genealogy is applied to determine the system of communal leadership. It is the traditional pattern of bequeathing political power family members. 

Kinship politics is built based on the classic political principle: blood is thicker than water. It asserts that power should be distributed among family members. 

For the sake of family security, power should not be seized from those who have kinship connections and must be circulated only among those who are tied by blood.

Political dynasties have long been present in the Philippine political structure. 

Political dynasties started emerging after the Philippine Revolution when the First Republic of the Philippines was established. Over the years, newer dynasties emerged as some of the initial ones became inactive. The majority of the positions in the Philippine government are currently held by members of political dynasties. Notable Philippine political dynasties include the Aquino and Marcos families.

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UCSP 4 - How society is organized

How society is organized

1. Groups within society: Primary and Secondary
2. In-groups and out-groups
3. Reference groups
4. Networks

REFERENCE: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/types-of-social-groups/

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Key Points

• A social group exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals.
• Social cohesion can be formed through shared interests, values, representations, ethnic or social background, and kinship ties, among other factors.
• The social identity approach posits that the necessary and sufficient conditions for the formation of social groups is the awareness that an individual belongs and is recognized as a member of a group.
• The social identity approach posits that the necessary and sufficient conditions for the formation of social groups is the awareness that the individual belongs and is recognized as a member of a group.

Key Terms

• social group: A collection of humans or animals that share certain characteristics, interact with one another, accept expectations and obligations as members of the group, and share a common identity.
• The social identity approach: Posits that the necessary and sufficient condition for the formation of social groups is awareness of a common category membership.
• The social cohesion approach: More than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus stop, or people waiting in a line.

Primary Groups

A primary group is typically a small social group whose members share close, personal, enduring relationships.

Key Points

• Primary groups are marked by concern for one another, shared activities and culture, and long periods of time spent together. They are psychologically comforting and quite influential in developing personal identity.
• Families and close friends are examples of primary groups.
• The goal of primary groups is actually the relationships themselves rather than achieving some other purpose.
• The concept of the primary group was introduced by Charles Cooley in his book, Social Organization : A Study of the Larger Mind.

Key Terms

• Close friends: They are examples of primary groups.
• group: A number of things or persons being in some relation to one another.
• relationship: Connection or association; the condition of being related.

Sociologists distinguish between two types of groups based upon their characteristics. A primary group is typically a small social group whose members share close, personal, enduring relationships. These groups are marked by a concern for one another, shared activities and culture, and long periods of time spent together. The goal of primary groups is actually the relationships themselves rather than achieving some other purpose. Families and close friends are examples of primary groups.

Charles Cooley

The concept of the primary group was introduced by Charles Cooley, a sociologist from the Chicago School of sociology, in his book Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind (1909). Primary groups play an important role in the development of personal identity. Cooley argued that the impact of the primary group is so great that individuals cling to primary ideals in more complex associations and even create new primary groupings within formal organizations. To that extent, he viewed society as a constant experiment in enlarging social experience and in coordinating variety. He, therefore, analyzed the operation of such complex social forms as formal institutions and social class systems and the subtle controls of public opinion.

Functions of Primary Groups

A primary group is a group in which one exchanges implicit items, such as love, caring, concern, support, etc. Examples of these would be family groups, love relationships, crisis support groups, and church groups. Relationships formed in primary groups are often long-lasting and goals in themselves. They also are often psychologically comforting to the individuals involved and provide a source of support and encouragement.

Secondary Groups

Secondary groups are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal-oriented; their relationships are temporary.

Key Points

• The distinction between primary and secondary groups was originally proposed by Charles Cooley. He termed them “secondary” because they generally develop later in life and are much less likely to be influential on one’s identity than primary groups.
• Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another. In contrast to primary groups, secondary groups don’t have the goal of maintaining and developing the relationships themselves.
• Secondary groups include groups in which one exchanges explicit commodities, such as labor for wages, services for payments, and such. They also include university classes, athletic teams, and groups of co-workers.

Key Terms

• primary group: It is typically a small social group whose members share close, personal, enduring relationships. These groups are marked by concern for one another, shared activities and culture, and long periods of time spent together.
• group: A number of things or persons being in some relation to one another.
• Secondary groups: They are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal-oriented.

Unlike first groups, secondary groups are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal oriented. People in a secondary group interact on a less personal level than in a primary group, and their relationships are generally temporary rather than long lasting. Some secondary groups may last for many years, though most are short term. Such groups also begin and end with very little significance in the lives of the people involved.

Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another. In contrast to primary groups, secondary groups don’t have the goal of maintaining and developing the relationships themselves.

Charles Cooley

The distinction between primary and secondary groups was originally proposed by Charles Cooley. He labeled groups as “primary” because people often experience such groups early in their life and such groups play an important role in the development of personal identity. Secondary groups generally develop later in life and are much less likely to be influential on one’s identity.

Functions

Since secondary groups are established to perform functions, people’s roles are more interchangeable. A secondary group is one you have chosen to be a part of. They are based on interests and activities. They are where many people can meet close friends or people they would just call acquaintances. Secondary groups are also groups in which one exchanges explicit commodities, such as labor for wages, services for payments, etc. Examples of these would be employment, vendor-to-client relationships, a doctor, a mechanic, an accountant, and such. A university class, an athletic team, and workers in an office all likely form secondary groups. Primary groups can form within secondary groups as relationships become more personal and close.

In-Groups and Out-Groups

In-groups are social groups to which an individual feels he or she belongs, while an individual doesn’t identify with the out-group.

Key Points

• In- group favoritism refers to a preference and affinity for one’s in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group.
• One of the key determinants of group biases is the need to improve self-esteem. That is individuals will find a reason, no matter how insignificant, to prove to themselves why their group is superior.
• Intergroup aggression is any behavior intended to harm another person, because he or she is a member of an out-group, the behavior being viewed by its targets as undesirable.
• The out-group homogeneity effect is one’s perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members (e.g., “they are alike; we are diverse”).
• Prejudice is a hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinct group, based solely on their membership within that group.
• A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members.

Key Terms

• in-group bias: It refers to a preference and affinity for one’s in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group.
• Intergroup aggression: It is any behavior intended to harm another person because he or she is a member of an out-group, the behavior being viewed by its targets as undesirable.
• In-group favoritism: It refers to a preference and affinity for one’s in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group. This can be expressed in evaluation of others, linking, allocation of resources and many other ways.

In sociology and social psychology, in-groups and out-groups are social groups to which an individual feels as though he or she belongs as a member, or towards which they feel contempt, opposition, or a desire to compete, respectively. People tend to hold positive attitudes towards members of their own groups, a phenomenon known as in-group bias. The term originates from social identity theory which grew out of the work of social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner.

Henri Tajfel: The in-group and out-group concepts originate from social identity theory, which grew out of the work of social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner.

In-group favoritism refers to a preference and affinity for one’s in-group over the out-group or anyone viewed as outside the in-group. This can be expressed in evaluation of others, linking, allocation of resources, and many other ways. A key notion in understanding in-group/out-group biases is determining the psychological mechanism that drives the bias. One of the key determinants of group biases is the need to improve self-esteem. That is individuals will find a reason, no matter how insignificant, to prove to themselves why their group is superior.

Intergroup aggression is any behavior intended to harm another person because he or she is a member of an out group. Intergroup aggression is a by product of in-group bias, in that if the beliefs of the in-group are challenged or if the in-group feels threatened, then they will express aggression toward the out-group. The major motive for intergroup aggression is the perception of a conflict of interest between in-group and out-group. The way the aggression is justified is through dehumanizing the out-group, because the more the out-group is dehumanized the “less they deserve the humane treatment enjoined by universal norms. ”

French Stereotypes: Prejudice is similar to stereotype in that a stereotype is a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members.

The out-group homogeneity effect is one’s perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members, e.g. “they are alike; we are diverse. ” The out-group homogeneity effect has been found using a wide variety of different social groups, from political and racial groups to age and gender groups. Perceivers tend to have impressions about the diversity or variability of group members around those central tendencies or typical attributes of those group members. Thus, out-group stereotypicality judgments are overestimated, supporting the view that out-group stereotypes are over-generalizations In an experiment testing out-group homogeneity, researchers revealed that people of other races are perceived to look more alike than members of one’s own race. When white students were shown faces of a few white and a few black individuals, they later more accurately recognized white faces they had seen and often falsely recognized black faces not seen before. The opposite results were found when subjects consisted of black individuals.

Prejudice is a hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinct group, based solely on their membership within that group. There are three components. The first is the affective component, representing both the type of emotion linked with the attitude and the severity of the attitude. The second is a cognitive component, involving beliefs and thoughts that make up the attitude. The third is a behavioral component, relating to one’s actions – people do not just hold attitudes, they act on them as well. Prejudice primarily refers to a negative attitude about others, although one can also have a positive prejudice in favor of something. Prejudice is similar to stereotype in that a stereotype is a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members.

Reference Groups

Sociologists call any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior as a reference group.

Key Points

• Social comparison theory argues that individuals use comparisons with others to gain accurate self-evaluations and learn how to define the self. A reference group is a concept referring to a group to which an individual or another group is compared.
• Reference groups provide the benchmarks and contrast needed for comparison and evaluation of group and personal characteristics.
• Robert K. Merton hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social role to which the individual aspires.

Key Terms

• self-identity: a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual’s perception of “self” in relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics and non academics, gender roles and sexuality, racial identity,and many others.
• social role: it is a set of connected behaviors, rights, and obligations as conceptualized by actors in a social situation.
• reference group: it is a concept referring to a group to which an individual or another group is compared.

Social comparison theory is centered on the belief that there is a drive within individuals to gain accurate self-evaluations. Individuals evaluate their own opinions and define the self by comparing themselves to others. One important concept in this theory is the reference group. A reference group refers to a group to which an individual or another group is compared. Sociologists call any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior a reference group.

Reference groups are used in order to evaluate and determine the nature of a given individual or other group’s characteristics and sociological attributes. It is the group to which the individual relates or aspires to relate himself or herself psychologically. Reference groups become the individual’s frame of reference and source for ordering his or her experiences, perceptions, cognition, and ideas of self. It is important for determining a person’s self-identity, attitudes, and social ties. These groups become the basis of reference in making comparisons or contrasts and in evaluating one’s appearance and performance.

Robert K. Merton hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social role to which the individual aspires. Reference groups act as a frame of reference to which people always refer to evaluate their achievements, their role performance, aspirations and ambitions. A reference group can either be from a membership group or non-membership group.

An example of a reference group is a group of people who have a certain level of affluence. For example, an individual in the U.S. with an annual income of $80,000, may consider himself affluent if he compares himself to those in the middle of the income strata, who earn roughly $32,000 a year. If, however, the same person considers the relevant reference group to be those in the top 0.1% of households in the U.S., those making $1.6 million or more, then the individual’s income of $80,000 would make him or her seem rather poor.

Social Networks

A social network is a social structure between actors, connecting them through various social familiarities.

Key Points

• The study of social networks is called both “social network analysis” and “social network theory “.
• Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors.
• In sociology, social capital is the expected collective or economic benefits derived from the preferential treatment and cooperation between individuals and groups.
• The rule of 150 states that the size of a genuine social network is limited to about 150 members.
• The small world phenomenon is the hypothesis that the chain of social acquaintances required to connect one arbitrary person to another arbitrary person anywhere in the world is generally short.
• Milgram also identified the concept of the familiar stranger, or an individual who is recognized from regular activities, but with whom one does not interact.
• Milgram also identified the concept of the familiar stranger, or an individual who is recognized from regular activities, but with whom one does not interact.

Key Terms

• node: They are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors.
• social capital: The good will, sympathy, and connections created by social interaction within and between social networks.

A social network is a social structure between actors, either individuals or organizations. It indicates the ways in which they are connected through various social familiarities, ranging from casual acquaintance to close familial bonds. The study of social networks is called both “social network analysis” and “social network theory. ” Research in a number of academic fields has demonstrated that social networks operate on many levels, from families up to the level of nations, and play a critical role in determining the way problems are solved, organizations are run, and the degree to which individuals succeed in achieving their goals. Sociologists are interested in social networks because of their influence on and importance for the individual. Social networks are the basic tools used by individuals to meet other people, recreate, and to find social support.

Social Network Illustration: An example of a social network diagram

Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors. There can be many kinds of ties between the nodes. In its most simple form, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties between the nodes being studied. The network can also be used to determine the social capital of individual actors. In sociology, social capital is the expected collective or economic benefits derived from the preferential treatment and cooperation between individuals and groups.

The rule of 150 states that the size of a genuine social network is limited to about 150 members. The rule arises from cross-cultural studies in sociology and especially anthropology of the maximum size of a village. The small world phenomenon is the hypothesis that the chain of social acquaintances required to connect one arbitrary person to another arbitrary person anywhere in the world is generally short. The concept gave rise to the famous phrase “six degrees of separation” after a 1967 small world experiment by psychologist Stanley Milgram that found that two random U.S. citizens were connected by an average of six acquaintances. Milgram also identified the concept of the familiar stranger, or an individual who is recognized from regular activities, but with whom one does not interact. Somebody who is seen daily on the train or at the gym, but with whom one does not otherwise communicate, is an example of a familiar stranger. If such individuals meet in an unfamiliar setting, for example, while travelling, they are more likely to introduce themselves than would perfect strangers, since they have a background of shared experiences.
Studies

Recent research suggests that the social networks of Americans are shrinking, and more and more people have no close confidants or people with whom they can share their most intimate thoughts. In 1985, the mean network size of individuals in the United States was 2.94 people. Networks declined by almost an entire confidant by 2004, to 2.08 people. Almost half, 46.3% of Americans, say they have only one or no confidants with whom they can discuss important matters. The most frequently occurring response to the question of how many confidants one has was zero in 2004.

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